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GENERAL OVERVIEW OF THE SYSTEM

The UNIX system has become quite popular since its inception in 1969, running on machines of varying processing power from microprocessors to mainframes and providing a common execution environment across them. The system is divided into two parts. The first part consists of programs and services that have made the UNIX system environment so popular; it is the part readily apparent to users, including such programs as the shell, mail, text processing packages, and source code control systems. The second part consists of the operating system that supports these programs and services. This book gives a detailed description of the operating system. It concentrates on a description of UNIX System V produced by AT&T but considers interesting features provided by other versions too. It examines the major data structures and algorithms used in the operating system that ultimately provide users with the standard user interface.

This chapter provides an introduction to the UNIX system. It reviews its history and outlines the overall system structure. The next chapter gives a more detailed introduction to the operating system.

1.1 HISTORY

In 1965, Bell Telephone Laboratories joined an effort with the General Electric Company and Project MAC of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to
develop a new operating system called Multics [Organick 72]. The goals of the Multics system were to provide simultaneous computer access to a large community of users, to supply ample computation power and data storage, and to allow users to share their data easily, if desired. Many people who later took part in the early development of the UNIX system participated in the Multics work at Bell Laboratories. Although a primitive version of the Multics system was running on a GE 645 computer by 1969, it did not provide the general service computing for which it was intended, nor was it clear when its development goals would be met. Consequently, Bell Laboratories ended its participation in the project.

With the end of their work on the Multics project, members of the Computing Science Research Center at Bell Laboratories were left without a “convenient interactive computing service,1 [Ritchie 84a). In an attempt to improve their programming environment, Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, and others sketched a paper design of a file system that later evolved into an early version of the UNIX file system. Thompson wrote programs that simulated the behavior of the proposed file system and of programs in a demand-paging environment, and he even encoded a simple kernel for the GE 645 computer. At the same time, he wrote a game program, Space Travel,” in Fortran for a GECOS system (the Honeywell 635), but the program was unsatisfactory because it was difficult to control the “space ship” and the program was expensive to run. Thompson later found a little-used PDP-7 computer that provided good graphic display and cheap executing power. Programming “Space Travel” for the PDP-7 enabled Thompson to learn about the machine, but its environment for program development required cross-assembly of the program on the GECOS machine and carrying paper tape for input to the PDP-7. To create a better development environment, Thompson and Ritchie implemented their system design on the PDP-7, including an early version of the UNIX file system, the process subsystem, and a small set of utility programs. Eventually, the new system no longer needed the GECOS system as a development environment but could support itself. The new system was given the name UNIX, a pun on the name Multics coined by another member of the Computing Science Research Center, Brian Kernighan.

Although this early version of the UNIX system held much promise, it could not realize its potential until it was used in a real project. Thus, while providing a text processing system for the patent department at Bell Laboratories, the UNIX system was moved to a PDP-11 in 1971. The system was characterized by its small size: 16K bytes for the system, 8K bytes for user programs, a disk of 512K bytes, and a limit of 64K bytes per file. After its early success, Thompson set out to implement a Fortran compiler for the new system, but instead came up with the language B, influenced by BCPL [Richards 69]. B was an interpretive language with the performance drawbacks implied by such languages, so Ritchie developed it into one he called C, allowing generation of machine code, declaration of data types, and definition of data structures. In 1973, the operating system was rewritten in C, an unheard of step at the time, but one that was to have tremendous impact on its acceptance among outside users. The number of installations at Bell
Laboratories grew to about 25, and a UNIX Systems Group was formed to provide internal support.

At this time, AT&T could not market computer products because of a 1956 Consent Decree it had signed with the Federal government, but it provided the UNIX system to universities who requested it for educational purposes. AT&T neither advertised, marketed, nor supported the system, in adherence to the terms of the Consent Decree. Nevertheless, the system*s popularity steadily increased. In 1974, Thompson and Ritchie published a paper describing the UNIX system in the Communications of the ACM [Thompson 74], giving further impetus to its acceptance. By 1977, the number of UNIX system sites had grown to about 500, of which 125 were in universities. UNIX systems became popular in the operating telephone companies, providing a good environment for program development, network transaction operations services, and real-time services (via MERT [Lycklama 78a]).

Licenses of UNIX systems were provided to commercial institutions as well as universities. In 1977, Interactive Systems Corporation became the first Value Added Reseller (VAR)[ Value Added Resellers add specific applications to a computer system to satisfy a particular market. They market the applications rather than the operating system upon which they run.] of a UNIX system, enhancing it for use in office automation environments. 1977 also marked the year that the UNIX system was first “ported” to a non-PDP machine (that is, made to run on another machine with few or no changes), the Interdata 8/32.

With the growing popularity of microprocessors, other companies ported the UNIX system to new machines, but its simplicity and clarity tempted many developers to enhance it in their own way, resulting in several variants of the basic system. In the period from 1977 to 1982, Bell Laboratories combined several AT&T variants into a single system, known commercially as UNIX System III. Bell Laboratories later added several features to UNIX System III, calling the new product UNIX System V,[ What happened to System IV? An internal version of the system evolved into System V.] and AT&T announced official support for System V in January 1983. However, people at the University of California at Berkeley had developed a variant to the UNIX system, the most recent version of which is called 4.3 BSD for VAX machines, providing some new, interesting features. This book will concentrate on the description of UNIX System V and will occasionally talk about features provided in the BSD system.

By the beginning of 1984, there were about 100,000 UNIX system installations in the world, running on machines with a wide range of computing power from microprocessors to mainframes and on machines across different manufacturers* product lines. No other operating system can make that claim. Several reasons have been suggested for the popularity and success of the UNIX system.

• The system is written in a high-level language, making it easy to read, understand, change, and move to other machines. Ritchie estimates that the first system in C was 20 to 40 percent larger and slower because it was not written in assembly language, but the advantages of using a higher-level language far outweigh the disadvantages (see page 1965 of [Ritchie 78b]).
• It has a simple user interface that has the power to provide the services that users want.
• It provides primitives that permit complex programs to be built from simpler programs.
• It uses a hierarchical file system that allows easy maintenance and efficient implementation.
• It uses a consistent format for files, the byte stream, making application programs easier to write.
• It provides a simple, consistent interface to peripheral devices.
• It is a multi-user, multiprocess system; each user can execute several processes simultaneously.
• It hides the machine architecture from the user, making it easier to write programs that run on different hardware implementations.

The philosophy of simplicity and consistency underscores the UNIX system and accounts for many of the reasons cited above.

Although the operating system and many of the command programs are written in C, UNIX systems support other languages, including Fortran, Basic, Pascal, Ada, Cobol, Lisp, and Prolog. The UNIX system can support any language that has a compiler or interpreter and a system interface that maps user requests for operating system services to the standard set of requests used on UNIX systems.

1.2 SYSTEM STRUCTURE

Figure 1.1 depicts the high-level architecture of the UNIX system. The hardware at the center of the diagram provides the operating system with basic services that will be described in Section 1.5. The operating system interacts directly with the hardware, providing common services to programs and insulating them from hardware idiosyncrasies. Viewing the system as a set of layers, the operating system is commonly called the system kernel, or just the kernel, emphasizing its

isolation from user programs. Because programs are independent of the underlying hardware, it is easy to move them between UNIX systems running on different hardware if the programs do not make assumptions about the underlying hardware. For instance, programs that assume the size of a machine word are more difficult to move to other machines than programs that do not make this assumption.

Programs such as the shell and editors {ed and vi) shown in the outer layers interact with the kernel by invoking a well defined set of system calls. The system calls instruct the kernel to do various operations for the calling program and exchange data between the kernel and the program. Several programs shown in the figure are in standard system configurations and are known as commands, but private user programs may also exist in this layer as indicated by the program whose name is a.out, the standard name for executable files produced by the C compiler. Other application programs can build on top of lower-level programs, hence the existence of the outermost layer in the figure. For example, the standard C compiler, cc, is in the outermost layer of the figure: it invokes a C preprocessor,
two-pass compiler, assembler, and loader (link-editor), all separate lower-level programs. Although the figure depicts a two-level hierarchy of application programs, users can extend the hierarchy to whatever levels are appropriate. Indeed, the style of programming favored by the UNIX system encourages the combination of existing programs to accomplish a task.

Many application subsystems and programs that provide a high-level view of the system such as the shell, editors, SCCS (Source Code Control System), and document preparation packages, have gradually become synonymous with the name “UNIX system.” However, they all use lower-level services ultimately provided by the kernel, and they avail themselves of these services via the set of system calls. There are about 64 system calls in System V, of which fewer than 32 are used frequently. They have simple options that make them easy to use but provide the user with a lot of power. The set of system calls and the internal algorithms that implement them form the body of the kernel, and the study of the UNIX operating system presented in this book reduces to a detailed study and analysis of the system calls and their interaction with one another. In short, the kernel provides the services upon which all application programs in the UNIX system rely, and it defines those services. This book will frequently use the terms “UNIX system,” “kernel,” or “system,” but the intent is to refer to the kernel of the UNIX operating system and should be clear in context.

1.3 USER PERSPECTIVE

This section briefly reviews high-level features of the UNIX system such as the file system, the processing environment, and building block primitives (for example, pipes). Later chapters will explore kernel support of these features in detail.

1.3.1 The File System

The UNIX file system is characterized by

• a hierarchical structure,

• consistent treatment of file data,

• the ability to create and delete files,

• dynamic growth of files,

• the protection of file data,

• the treatment of peripheral devices (such as terminals and tape units) as files.

  The file system is organized as a tree with a single root node called root (written “/“); every non-leaf node of the file system structure is a directory of files, and files at the leaf nodes of the tree are either directories, regular files , or special device files. The name of a file is given by a path name that describes how to locate the file in the file system hierarchy. A path name is a sequence of component names separated by slash characters; a component is a sequence of characters that

designates a file name that is uniquely contained in the previous (directory) component. A full path name starts with a slash character and specifies a file that can be found by starting at the file system root and traversing the file tree, following the branches that lead to successive component names of the path name. Thus, the path names “/etc/passwd”, “/bin/who”, and “/usr/src/cmd/who.c” designate files in the tree shown in Figure 1.2, but “/bin/passwd” and “/usr/src/date.c” do not. A path name does not have to start from root but can be designated relative to the current directory of an executing process, by om社ting the initial slash in the path name. Thus, starting from directory “/dev”, the path name “tty01” designates the file whose full path name is “/dev/tty01”.

Programs in the UNIX system have no knowledge of the internal format in which the kernel stores file data, treating the data as an unformatted stream of bytes. Programs may interpret the byte stream as they wish, but the interpretation has no bearing on how the operating system stores the data. Thus, the syntax of accessing the data in a file is defined by the system and is identical for all programs, but the semantics of the data are imposed by the program. For example, the text formatting program troff expects to find “new-line” characters at the end of each line of text, and the system accounting program acctcom expects to find fixed length records. Both programs use the same system services to access the data in the file as a byte stream, and internally, they parse the stream into a suitable format. If either program discovers that the format is incorrect, it is responsible for taking the appropriate action.

Directories are like regular files in this respect; the system treats the data in a directory as a byte stream, but the data contains the names of the files in the directory in a predictable format so that the operating system and programs such as Is (list the names and attributes of files) can discover the files in a directory.
Permission to access a file is controlled by access permissions associated with the file. Access permissions can be set independently to control read, write, and execute permission for three classes of users: the file owner, a file group, and everyone else. Users may create files if directory access permissions allow it. The newly created files are leaf nodes of the file system directory structure.

To the user, the UNIX system treats devices as if they were files. Devices, designated by special device files, occupy node positions in the file system directory structure. Programs access devices with the same syntax they use when accessing regular files; the semantics of reading and writing devices are to a large degree the same as reading and writing regular files. Devices are protected in the same way that regular files are protected: by proper setting of their (file) access permissions. Because device names look like the names of regular files and because the same operations work for devices and regular files, most programs do not have to know internally the types of files they manipulate.

For example, consider the C program in Figure 1.3, which makes a new copy of an existing file. Suppose the name of the executable version of the program is copy. A user at a terminal invokes the program by typing

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copy oldfile newfile

where oldfile is the name of the existing file and newfile is the name of the new file. The system invokes main, supplying argc as the number of parameters in the list argv, and initializing each member of the array argv to point to a user-supplied parameter.

In the example above, argc is 3, argv[0] points to the character string copy (the program name is conventionally the Oth parameter), argv[1] points to the character string oldfile, and argv[2] points to the character string newfile. The program then checks that it has been invoked with the proper number of parameters. If so, it invokes the open system call “read-only” for the file oldfile, and if the system call succeeds, invokes the creat system call to create newfile. The permission modes on the newly created file will be 0666 (octal), allowing all users access to the file for reading and writing. All system calls return -1 on failure; if the open or creat calls fail, the program prints a message and calls the exit system call with return status 1, terminating its execution and indicating that something went wrong.
The open and creat system calls return an integer called a file descriptor, which the program uses for subsequent references to the files. The program then calls the subroutine copy, which goes into a loop, invoking the read system call to read a buffer’s worth of characters from the existing file, and invoking the write system call to write the data to the new file. The read system call returns the number of bytes read, returning 0 when it reaches the end of file. The program finishes the loop when it encounters the end of file, or when there is some error on the read system call (it does not check for write errors). Then it returns from copy and exits with return status 0, indicating that the program completed successfully.

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#include <fcntl.h>

char buffer[2048];
int version = 1 ;

int main()
{
    int fdold , fdnew;
    if( argc !=3 ){
        printf("need 2 arguments for copy program\n");
        exit(1);
    }
    fdold = open(argv[1], O_RDONLY);
    if(ifold == -1){
        printf("cannot open file %s\n", argv[1]);
        exit(1);
    }
    
    fdnew = open(argv[2], 0666);
    if(ifnew == -1){
       printf("cannot create file %s\n", argv[2]);
        exit(1);
    }
    
    copy(fdold, fdnew);
    exit(0);
}

void copy( int old , int new){
    int count;
    while()
}

The program copies any files supplied to it as arguments, provided it has permission to open the existing file and permission to create the new file. The file can be a file of printable characters, such as the source code for the program, or it can contain unprintable characters, even the program itself. Thus, the two
invocations:

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copy copy.c newcopy.c
copy copy newcopy

both work. The old file can also be a directory. For instance,

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copy . dircontents

copies the contents of the current directory, denoted by the name to a regular file, “dircontents”; the data in the new file is identical, byte for byte, to the contents of the directory, but the file is a regular file. (The system call mknod creates a new directory.) Finally, either file can be a device special file. For example,

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copy /dev/tty terminalread

reads the characters typed at the terminal (the special file /dev/tty is the user’s terminal) and copies them to the file terminalread, terminating only when the user types the character control-d. Similarly,

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copy /dev/tty /dev/tty

reads characters typed at the terminal and copies them back.

1.3.2 Processing Environment

A program is an executable file, and a process is an instance of the program in execution. Many processes can execute simultaneously on UNIX systems (this feature is sometimes called multiprogramming or multitasking) with no logical limit to their number, and many instances of a program (such as copy) can exist simultaneously in the system. Various system calls allow processes to create new processes, terminate processes, synchronize stages of process execution, and control reaction to various events. Subject to their use of system calls, processes execute independently of each other.

For example, a process executing the program in Figure 1.4 executes the fork system call to create a new process. The new process, called the child process, gets a 0 return value from fork and invokes execl to execute the program copy (the program in Figure 1.3). The execl call overlays the address space of the child process with the file “copy”, assumed to be in the current directory, and runs the program with the user-supplied parameters. If the execl call succeeds, it never returns because the process executes in a new address space, as will be seen in Chapter 7. Meanwhile, the process that had invoked fork (the parent) receives a non-0 return from the call, calls wait, suspending its execution until copy finishes, prints the message “copy done,” and exits (every program exits at the end of its main function, as arranged by standard C program libraries that are linked during the compilation process). For example, if the name of the executable program is run, and a user invokes the program by

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int main()
{
    /* assume 2 args: source file and target file */ 
    if (fork() == 0)
        execl("copy", "copy", argv[1], argv[2], 0);
        
    wait((int *) 0);
    printf("copy done\n");
}

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run oldfile newfile

the process copies “oldhle” to “newfile” and prints out the message. Although this program adds little to the “copy” program, it exhibits four major system calls used for process control: fork, exec, wait, and, discreetly, exit.

Generally, the system calls allow users to write programs that do sophisticated operations, and as a result, the kernel of the UNIX system does not contain many functions that are part of the “kernel” in other systems. Such functions, including compilers and editors, are user-level programs in the UNIX system. The prime example of such a program is the shell, the command interpreter program that users typically execute after logging into the system. The shell interprets the first word of a command line as a command name: for many commands, the shell forks and the child process execs the command associated with the name, treating the remaining words on the command line as parameters to the command.

The shell allows three types of commands. First, a command can be an executable file that contains object code produced by compilation of source code (a C program for example). Second, a command can be an executable file that contains a sequence of shell command lines. Finally, a command can be an internal shell command (instead of an executable file). The internal commands make the shell a programming language in addition to a command interpreter and include commands for looping (for-in-do-done and while-do-done), commands for conditional execution (if-then-else-fi), a “case” statement command, a command to change the current directory of a process (cd), and several others. The shell syntax allows for pattern matching and parameter processing. Users execute commands without having to know their types.

The shell searches for commands in a given sequence of directories, changeable by user request per invocation of the shell. The shell usually executes a command synchronously, waiting for the command to terminate before reading the next command line. However, it also allows asynchronous execution, where it reads the next command line and executes it without waiting for the prior command to terminate. Commands executed asynchronously are said to execute in the background. For example, typing the command

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who

causes the system to execute the program stored in the file /bintwho： which prints a list of people who are currently logged in to the system. While who executes, the shell waits for it to finish and then prompts the user for another command. By typing

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who &

the system executes the program who in the background, and the shell is ready to accept another command immediately.

Every process executing in the UNIX system has an execution environment that includes a current directory. The current directory of a process is the start directory used for all path names that do not begin with the slash character. The user may execute the shell command cd, change directory, to move around the file system tree and change the current directory. The command line

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cd Zusr/src/uts

changes the shell’s current directory to the directory “/usr/src/uts”. The command line

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cd ../../

changes the shell’s current directory to the directory that is two nodes “closer” to the root node: the component refers to the parent directory of the current directory.

Because the shell is a user program and not part of the kernel, it is easy to modify it and tailor it to a particular environment. For instance, users can use the C shell to provide a history mechanism and avoid retyping recently used commands, instead of the Bourne shell (named after its inventor, Steve Bourne), provided as part of the standard System V release. Or some users may be granted use only of a restricted shell, providing a scaled down version of the regular shell. The system can execute the various shells simultaneously. Users have the capability to execute many processes simultaneously, and processes can create other processes dynamically and synchronize their execution, if desired. These features provide users with a powerful execution environment. Although much of the power of the shell derives from its capabilities as a programming language and from its capabilities for pattern matching of arguments, this section concentrates on the process environment provided by the system via the shell. Other important shell
features are beyond the scope of this book (see [Bourne 78] for a detailed description of the shell).

1.3.3Building Block Primitives

As described earlier, the philosophy of the UNIX system is to provide operating system primitives that enable users to write small, modular programs that can be used as building blocks to build more complex programs. One such primitive visible to shell users is the capability to redirect I/O. Processes conventionally have access to three files: they read from their standard input file, write to their standard output file, and write error messages to their standard error file. Processes executing at a terminal typically use the terminal for these three files, but each may be “redirected” independently. For instance, the command line

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ls

lists all files in the current directory on the standard output, but the command line

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ls > output

redirects the standard output to the file called “output” in the current directory, using the creat system call mentioned above. Similarly, the command line

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mail mjb < letter

opens the file “letter” for its standard intput and mails its contents to the user named “mjb.” Processes can redirect input and output simultaneously, as in

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nroff —mm < docl > doc Lout 2> errors

where the text formatter nroff reads the input file docl, redirects its standard output to the file doc Lout, and redirects error messages to the file errors (the notation “2>” means to redirect the output for file descriptor 2, conventionally the standard error). The programs Is、mail, and nroff do not know what file their standard input, standard output, or standard error will be; the shell recognizes the symbols “V”, and ‘’2>‘‘ and sets up the standard input, standard output, and standard error appropriately before executing the processes.

The second building block primitive is the pipe、a mechanism that allows a stream of data to be passed between reader and writer processes. Processes can redirect their standard output to a pipe to be read by other processes that have redirected their standard input to come from the pipe. The data that the first processes write into the pipe is the input for the second processes. The second processes could also redirect their output, and so on, depending on programming need. Again, the processes need not know what type of file their standard output is; they work regardless of whether their standard output is a regular file, a pipe, or a device. When using the smaller programs as building blocks for a larger, more complex program, the programmer uses the pipe primitive and redirection of I/O to integrate the piece parts. Indeed, the system tacitly encourages such programming style so that new programs can work with existing programs.

For example, the program grep searches a set of files (parameters to grep) for a given pattern:

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grep main a.c b.c c.c

searches the three files a.c, b.c, and c.c for lines containing the string “main” and prints the lines that it finds onto standard output. Sample output may be:

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a.c: main(argc, argv)
c.c: /* here is the main loop in the program */
c.c: main()

The program wc with the option —1 counts the number of lines in the standard input file. The command line

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grep main a.c b.c c.c | wc —1

counts the number of lines in the files that contain the string “main”; the output from grep is “piped” directly into the wc command. For the previous sample output from grep, the output from the piped command is

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The use of pipes frequently makes it unnecessary to create temporary files.

1.4 OPERATING SYSTEM SERVICES

Figure 1.1 depicts the kernel layer immediately below the layer of user application programs. The kernel performs various primitive operations on behalf of user processes to support the user interface described above. Among the services provided by the kernel are

• Controlling the execution of processes by allowing their creation, termination or suspension, and communication

• Scheduling processes fairly for execution on the CPU. Processes share the CPU in a time-shared manner: the CPU executes a process, the kernel suspends it when its time quantum elapses, and the kernel schedules another process to execute. The kernel later reschedules the suspended process.

• Allocating main memory for an executing process. The kernel allows processes to share portions of their address space under certain conditions, but protects the private address space of a process from outside tampering. If the system runs low on free memory, the kernel frees memory by writing a process
  temporarily to secondary memory, called a swap device. If the kernel writes entire processes to a swap device, the implementation of the UNIX system is called a swapping system; if it writes pages of memory to a swap device, it is called a paging system.

• Allocating secondary memory for efficient storage and retrieval of user data. This service constitutes the file system. The kernel allocates secondary storage for user files, reclaims unused storage, structures the file system in a well understood manner, and protects user files from illegal access.

• Allowing processes controlled access to peripheral devices such as terminals, tape drives, disk drives, and network devices.

  The kernel provides its services transparently. For example, it recognizes that a given file is a regular file or a device, but hides the distinction from user processes. Similarly, it formats data in a file for internal storage, but hides the internal format from user processes, returning an unformatted byte stream. Finally, it offers necessary services so that user-level processes can support the services they must provide, while omitting services that can be implemented at the user level. For example, the kernel supports the services that the shell needs to act as a command interpreter: It allows the shell to read terminal input, to spawn processes dynamically, to synchronize process execution, to create pipes, and to redirect I/O. Users can construct private versions of the shell to tailor their environments to their specifications without affecting other users. These programs use the same kernel services as the standard shell.

  1.5 ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT HARDWARE

  The execution of user processes on UNIX systems is divided into two levels: user and kernel. When a process executes a system call, the execution mode of the process changes from user mode to kernel mode: the operating system executes and attempts to service the user request, returning an error code if it fails. Even if the user makes no explicit requests for operating system services, the operating system still does bookkeeping operations that relate to the user process, handling interrupts, scheduling processes, managing memory, and so on. Many machine architectures (and their operating systems) support more levels than the two outlined here, but the two modes, user and kernel, are sufficient for UNIX systems.

The differences between the two modes are

• Processes in user mode can access their own instructions and data but not kernel instructions and data (or those of other processes). Processes in kernel mode, however, can access kernel and user addresses. For example, the virtual address space of a process may be divided between addresses that are accessible only in kernel mode and addresses that are accessible in either mode.
• Some machine instructions are privileged and result in an error when executed in user mode. For example, a machine may contain an instruction that manipulates the processor status register; processes executing in user mode

should not have this capability.

Put simply, the hardware views the world in terms of kernel mode and user mode and does not distinguish among the many users executing programs in those modes. The operating system keeps internal records to distinguish the many processes executing on the system. Figure 1.5 shows the distinction: the kernel distinguishes between processes A, B, C, and D on the horizontal axis, and the hardware distinguishes the mode of execution on the vertical axis.

Although the system executes in one of two modes, the kernel runs on behalf of a user process. The kernel is not a separate set of processes that run in parallel to user processes, but it is part of each user process. The ensuing text will frequently refer to “the kernel” allocating resources or “the kernel” doing various operations, but what is meant is that a process executing in kernel mode allocates the resources or does the various operations. For example, the shell reads user terminal input via a system call: The kernel, executing on behalf of the shell process, controls the operation of the terminal and returns the typed characters to the shell. The shell then executes in user mode, interprets the character stream typed by the user, and does the specified set of actions, which may require invocation of other system calls.

1.5.1 Interrupts and Exceptions

The UNIX system allows devices such as I/O peripherals or the system clock to interrupt the CPU asynchronously. On receipt of the interrupt, the kernel saves its current context (a frozen image of what the process was doing), determines the cause of the interrupt, and services the interrupt. After the kernel services the interrupt, it restores its interrupted context and proceeds as if nothing had happened. The hardware usually prioritizes devices according to the order that interrupts should be handled: When the kernel services an interrupt, it blocks out lower priority interrupts but services higher priority interrupts.

An exception condition refers to unexpected events caused by a process, such as addressing illegal memory, executing privileged instructions, dividing by zero, and so on. They are distinct from interrupts, which are caused by events that are
external to a process. Exceptions happen “in the middle^, of the execution of an instruction, and the system attempts to restart the instruction after handling the exception; interrupts are considered to happen between the execution of two instructions, and the system continues with the next instruction after servicing the interrupt. The UNIX system uses one mechanism to handle interrupts and exception conditions.

1.5.2 Processor Execution Levels

The kernel must sometimes prevent the occurrence of interrupts during critical activity, which could result in corrupt data if interrupts were allowed. For instance, the kernel may not want to receive a disk interrupt while manipulating linked lists, because handling the interrupt could corrupt the pointers, as will be seen in the next chapter. Computers typically have a set of privileged instructions that set the processor execution level in the processor status word. Setting the processor execution level to certain values masks off interrupts from that level and lower levels, allowing only higher-level interrupts. Figure 1.6 shows a sample set of execution levels. If the kernel masks out disk interrupts, all interrupts except for clock interrupts and machine error interrupts are prevented. If it masks out software interrupts, all other interrupts may occur.

1.5.3 Memory Management

The kernel permanently resides in main memory as does the currently executing process (or parts of it, at least). When compiling a program, the compiler generates a set of addresses in the program that represent addresses of variables
and data structures or the addresses of instructions such as functions. The compiler generates the addresses for a virtual machine as if no other program will execute simultaneously on the physical machine.

When the program is to run on the machine, the kernel allocates space in main memory for it, but the virtual addresses generated by the compiler need not be identical to the physical addresses that they occupy in the machine. The kernel coordinates with the machine hardware to set up a virtual to physical address translation that maps the compiler-generated addresses to the physical machine addresses. The mapping depends on the capabilities of the machine hardware, and the parts of UNIX systems that deal with them are therefore machine dependent. For example, some machines have special hardware to support demand paging. Chapters 6 and 9 will discuss issues of memory management and how they relate to hardware in more detail.

1.6 SUMMARY

This chapter has described the overall structure of the UNIX system, the relationship between processes running in user mode versus kernel mode, and the assumptions the kernel makes about the hardware. Processes execute in user mode or kernel mode, where they avail themselves of system services using a well-defined set of system calls. The system design encourages programmers to write small programs that do only a few operations but do them well, and then to combine the programs using pipes and I/O redirection to do more sophisticated processing.

The system calls allow processes to do operations that are otherwise forbidden to them. In addition to servicing system calls, the kernel does general bookkeeping for the user community, controlling process scheduling, managing the storage and protection of processes in main memory, fielding interrupts, managing files and devices, and taking care of system error conditions. The UNIX system kernel purposely omits many functions that are part of other operating systems, providing a small set of system calls that allow processes to do necessary functions at user level. The next chapter gives a more detailed introduction to the kernel, describing its architecture and some basic concepts used in its implementation.

INTRODUCTION TO THE KERNEL

The last chapter gave a high-level perspective of the UNIX system environment. This chapter focuses on the kernel, providing an overview of its architecture and outlining basic concepts and structures essential for understanding the rest of the book.

2.1 ARCHITECTURE OF THE UNIX OPERATING SYSTEM

It has been noted (see page 239 of [Christian 83]) that the UNIX system supports the illusions that the file system has “places” and that processes have “life.” The two entities, files and processes, are the two central concepts in the UNIX system model. Figure 2.1 gives a block diagram of the kernel, showing various modules and their relationships to each other. In particular, it shows the file subsystem on the left and the process control subsystem on the right, the two major components of the kernel. The diagram serves as a useful logical view of the kernel, although in practice the kernel deviates from the model because some modules interact with the internal operations of others.

​ Figure 2.1 shows three levels: user, kernel, and hardware. The system call and library interface represent the border between user programs and the kernel depicted in Figure 1.1. System calls look like ordinary function calls in C programs, and libraries map these function calls to the primitives needed to enter

the operating system, as covered in more detail in Chapter 6. Assembly language programs may invoke system calls directly without a system call library, however. Programs frequently use other libraries such as the standard I/O library to provide a more sophisticated use of the system calls. The libraries are linked with the programs at compile time and are thus part of the user program for purposes of this discussion. An example later on will illustrate these points.

​ The figure partitions the set of system calls into those that interact with the file subsystem and those that interact with the process control subsystem. The file subsystem manages files, allocating file space, administering free space, controlling access to files, and retrieving data for users. Processes interact with the file subsystem via a specific set of system calls, such as open (to open a file for reading or writing), close、read, write, stat (query the attributes of a file), chown (change the record of who owns the file), and chmod (change the access permissions of a file). These and others will be examined in Chapter 5.

​ The file subsystem accesses file data using a buffering mechanism that regulates data flow between the kernel and secondary storage devices. The buffering mechanism interacts with block I/O device drivers to initiate data transfer to and from the kernel. Device drivers are the kernel modules that control the operation of peripheral devices. Block I/O devices are random access storage devices; alternatively, their device drivers make them appear to be random access storage devices to the rest of the system. For example, a tape driver may allow the kernel to treat a tape unit as a random access storage device. The file subsystem also interacts directly with “raw” I/O device drivers without the intervention of a buffering mechanism. Raw devices, sometimes called character devices, include all devices that are not block devices.

​ The process control subsystem is responsible for process synchronization, interprocess communication, memory management, and process scheduling. The file subsystem and the process control subsystem interact when loading a file into memory for execution, as will be seen in Chapter 7: the process subsystem reads executable files into memory before executing them.

​ Some of the system calls for controlling processes are fork (create a new process), exec (overlay the image of a program onto the running process), exit (finish executing a process), wait (synchronize process execution with the exit of a previously forked process), brk (control the size of memory allocated to a process), and signal (control process response to extraordinary events). Chapter 7 will examine these system calls and others.

​ The memory management module controls the allocation of memory. If at any time the system does not have enough physical memory for all processes, the kernel moves them between main memory and secondary memory so that all processes get a fair chance to execute. Chapter 9 will describe two policies for managing memory: swapping and demand paging. The swapper process is sometimes called the scheduler, because it “schedules” the allocation of memory for processes and influences the operation of the CPU scheduler. However, this text will refer to it as the swapper to avoid confusion with the CPU scheduler.

​ The scheduler module allocates the CPU to processes. It schedules them to run in turn until they voluntarily relinquish the CPU while awaiting a resource or until the kernel preempts them when their recent run time exceeds a time quantum. The scheduler then chooses the highest priority eligible process to run; the original process will run again when it is the highest priority eligible process available.

​ There are several forms of interprocess communication, ranging from asynchronous signaling of events to synchronous transmission of messages between processes.

​ Finally, the hardware control is responsible for handling interrupts and for communicating with the machine. Devices such as disks or terminals may interrupt the CPU while a process is executing. If so, the kernel may resume execution of the interrupted process after servicing the interrupt: Interrupts are not serviced by special processes but by special functions in the kernel, called in the context of the currently running process.

2.2 INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEM CONCEPTS

This section gives an overview of some major kernel data structures and describes the function of modules shown in Figure 2.1 in more detail.

2.2.1 An Overview of the File Subsystem

The internal representation of a file is given by an inode, which contains a description of the disk layout of the file data and other information such as the file owner, access permissions, and access times. The term inode is a contraction of the term index node and is commonly used in literature on the UNIX system. Every file has one inode, but it may have several names, all of which map into the inode. Each name is called a link. When a process refers to a file by name, the kernel parses the file name one component at a time, checks that the process has permission to search the directories in the path, and eventually retrieves the inode for the file. For example, if a process calls

1

open("f2/mjb/rje/sourcefile", 1);

the kernel retrieves the inode for “/fs2/mjb/rje/sourcefile”. When a process creates a new file, the kernel assigns it an unused inode. Inodes are stored in the file system, as will be seen shortly, but the kernel reads them into an in-core inode table when manipulating files.

The kernel contains two other data structures, the file table and the user file descriptor table. The file table is a global kernel structure, but the user file descriptor table is allocated per process. When a process opens or create a file, the kernel allocates an entry from each table, corresponding to the file’s inode. Entries in the three structures — user file descriptor table, file table, and inode table — maintain the state of the file and the user’s access to it. The file table keeps track of the byte offset in the file where the user’s next read or write will start, and the

access rights allowed to the opening process. The user file descriptor table identifies all open files for a process. Figure 2.2 shows the tables and their relationship to each other. The kernel returns a file descriptor for the open and creat system calls, which is an index into the user file descriptor table. When executing read and write system calls, the kernel uses the file descriptor to access the user file descriptor table, follows pointers to the file table and inode table entries, and, from the inode, finds the data in the file. Chapters 4 and 5 describe these data structures in great detail. For now, suffice it to say that use of three tables allows various degrees of sharing access to a file.

​ The UNIX system keeps regular files and directories on block devices such as tapes or disks. Because of the difference in access time between the two, few, if any, UNIX system installations use tapes for their file systems. In coming years, diskless work stations will be common, where files are located on a remote system and accessed via a network (see Chapter 13). For simplicity, however, the ensuing text assumes the use of disks. An installation may have several physical disk units, each containing one or more file systems. Partitioning a disk into several file systems makes it easier for administrators to manage the data stored there. The kernel deals on a logical level with file systems rather than with disks, treating each one as a logical device identified by a logical device number. The conversion between logical device (file system) addresses and physical device (disk) addresses is done by the disk driver. This book will use the term device to mean a logical device unless explicitly stated otherwise.

​ A file system consists of a sequence of logical blocks, each containing 512, 1024, 2048, or any convenient multiple of 512 bytes, depending on the system implementation. The size of a logical block is homogeneous within a file system but may vary between different file systems in a system configuration. Using large logical blocks increases the effective data transfer rate between disk and memory, because the kernel can transfer more data per disk operation and therefore make fewer time-consuming operations. For example, reading IK bytes from a disk in one read operation is faster than reading 512 bytes twice. However, if a logical block is too large, effective storage capacity may drop, as will be shown in Chapter 5. For simplicity, this book will use the term “block” to mean a logical block, and it will assume that a logical block contains IK bytes of data unless explicitly stated otherwise.

• The boot block occupies the beginning of a file system, typically the first sector, and may contain the bootstrap code that is read into the machine to boot, or initialize, the operating system. Although only one boot block is needed to boot the system, every file system has a (possibly empty) boot block.

• The super block describes the state of a file system — how large it is, how many files it can store, where to find free space on the file system, and other information.

• The inode list is a list of inodes that follows the super block in the file system. Administrators specify the size of the inode list when configuring a file system. The kernel references inodes by index into the inode list. One inode is the root inode of the file system: it is the inode by which the directory structure of the file system is accessible after execution of the mount system call (Section 5.14).

• The data blocks start at the end of the inode list and contain file data and administrative data. An allocated data block can belong to one and only one file in the file system.

2.2.2 Processes

This section examines the process subsystem more closely. It describes the structure of a process and some process data structures used for memory management. Then it gives a preliminary view of the process state diagram and considers various issues involved in some state transitions.

​ A process is the execution of a program and consists of a pattern of bytes that the CPU interprets as machine instructions (called “text”)，data, and stack. Many processes appear to execute simultaneously as the kernel schedules them for execution, and several processes may be instances of one program. A process executes by following a strict sequence of instructions that is self-contained and does not jump to that of another process; it reads and writes its data and stack sections, but it cannot read or write the data and stack of other processes. Processes communicate with other processes and with the rest of the world via system calls.

In practical terms, a process on a UNIX system is the entity that is created by the fork system call. Every process except process 0 is created when another process executes the fork system calk The process that invoked the fork system call is the parent process, and the newly created process is the child process. Every process has one parent process, but a process can have many child processes. The kernel identifies each process by its process number, called the process ID (PID). Process 0 is a special process that is created *by hand, when the system boots; after forking a child process (process 1), process 0 becomes the swapper process. Process 1, known as init, is the ancestor of every other process in the system and enjoys a special relationship with them, as explained in Chapter 7.

A user compiles the source code of a program to create an executable file, which consists of several parts:

• a set of “headers” that describe the attributes of the file,
• the program text,
• a machine language representation of data that has initial values when the program starts execution, and an indication of how much space the kernel should allocate for uninitialized data, called bss1 (the kernel initializes it to 0 at run time),
• other sections, such as symbol table information.

For the program in Figure 1.3, the text of the executable file is the generated code for the functions main and copy , the initialized data is the variable version (put into the program just so that it should have some initialized data), and the uninitialized data is the array buffer. System V versions of the C compiler create a separate text section by default but support an option that allows inclusion of program instructions in the data section, used in older versions of the system.

​ The kernel loads an executable file into memory during an exec system call, and the loaded process consists of at least three parts, called regions: text, data, and the stack. The text and data regions correspond to the text and data-bss sections of the executable file, but the stack region is automatically created and its size is dynamically adjusted by the kernel at run time. The stack consists of logical stack frames that are pushed when calling a function and popped when returning; a special register called the stack pointer indicates the current stack depth. A stack frame contains the parameters to a function, its local variables, and the data necessary to recover the previous stack frame, including the value of the program counter and stack pointer at the time of the function call. The program code contains instruction sequences that manage stack growth, and the kernel allocates space for the stack, as needed. In the program in Figure 1.3, parameters argc and argv and variables fdold and fdnew in the function main appear on the stack when main is called (once in every program, by convention), and parameters old and new and the variable count in the function copy appear on the stack whenever copy is called.

​ Because a process in the UNIX system can execute in two modes, kernel or user, it uses a separate stack for each mode. The user stack contains the arguments, local variables, and other data for functions executing in user mode. The left side of Figure 2.4 shows the user stack for a process when it makes the write system call in the copy program. The process startup procedure (included in a library) had called the function main with two parameters, pushing frame 1 onto the user stack; frame 1 contains space for the two local variables of main. Main then called copy with two parameters, old and new, and pushed frame 2 onto the user stack; frame 2 contains space for the local variable count. Finally, the process invoked the system call write by invoking the library function write. Each system call has an entry point in a system call library; the system call library is encoded in assembly language and contains special trap instructions, which, when executed, cause an “interrupt” that results in a hardware switch to kernel mode. A process calls the library entry point for a particular system call just as it calls any function, creating a stack frame for the library function. When the process executes the special instruction, it switches mode to the kernel, executes kernel code, and uses the kernel stack.

​ The kernel stack contains the stack frames for functions executing in kernel mode. The function and data entries on the kernel stack refer to functions and data in the kernel, not the user program, but its construction is the same as that of the user stack. The kernel stack of a process is null when the process executes in user mode. The right side of Figure 2.4 depicts the kernel stack representation for a process executing the write system call in the copy program. The names of the algorithms are described during the detailed discussion of the write system call in later chapters.

​ Every process has an entry in the kernel process table, and each process is allocated a u arec^ that contains private data manipulated only by the kernel. The process table contains (or points to) a per process region table, whose entries point to entries in a region table. A region is a contiguous area of a process’s address

space, such as text, data, and stack. Region table entries describe the attributes of the region, such as whether it contains text or data, whether it is shared or private, and where the “data” of the region is located in memory. The extra level of indirection (from the per process region table to the region table) allows independent processes to share regions. When a process invokes the exec system call, the kernel allocates regions for its text, data, and stack after freeing the old regions the process had been using. When a process invokes fork, the kernel duplicates the address space of the old process, allowing processes to share regions when possible and making a physical copy otherwise. When a process invokes exit, the kernel frees the regions the process had used. Figure 2.5 shows the relevant data structures of a running process: The process table points to a per process region table with pointers to the region table entries for the text, data, and stack regions of the process.

​ The process table entry and the u area contain control and status information about the process. The u area is an extension of the process table entry, and Chapter 6 will examine the distinction between the two tables. Fields in the process table discussed in the following chapters are

• a state field,
• identifiers indicating the user who owns the process (user IDs, or UIDs),
• an event descriptor set when a process is suspended (in the sleep state).

The u area ccxitains information describing the process that needs to be accessible only when the process is executing. The important fields are

• a pointer to the process table slot of the currently executing process,
• parameters of the current system call, return values and error codes,
• file descriptors for all open Ales,
• internal I/O parameters,
• current directory and current root (see Chapter 5),
• process and file size limits.

The kernel can directly access Helds of the u area of the executing process but not of the u area of other processes. Internally, the kernel references the structure variable u to access the u area of the currently running process, and when another process executes, the kernel rearranges its virtual address space so that the structure u refers to the u area of the new process. The implementation gives the kernel an easy way to identify the current process by following the pointer from the u area to its process table entry.

2.2.2.1 Context of a process

The context of a process is its state, as defined by its text, the values of its global user variables and data structures, the values of machine registers it uses, the values stored in its process table slot and u area, and the contents of its user and kernel stacks. The text of the operating system and its global data structures are shared by all processes but do not constitute part of the context of a process.

​ When executing a process, the system is said to be executing in the context of the process. When the kernel decides that it should execute another process, it does a context switch, so that the system executes in the context of the other process. The kernel allows a context switch only under specihc conditions, as will be seen. When doing a context switch, the kernel saves enough information so that it can later switch back to the first process and resume its execution. Similarly, when moving from user to kernel mode, the kernel saves enough information so that it can later return to user mode and continue execution from where it left off. Moving between user and kernel mode is a change in mode, not a context switch. Recalling Figure 1.5, the kernel does a context switch when it changes context from process A to process B; it changes execution mode from user to kernel or from kernel to user, still executing in the context of one process, such as process A.

​ The kernel services interrupts in the context of the interrupted process even though it may not have caused the interrupt. The interrupted process may have been executing in user mode or in kernel mode. The kernel saves enough information so that it can later resume execution of the interrupted process and services the interrupt in kernel mode. The kernel does not spawn or schedule a special process to handle interrupts.

2.2.2.1 Process states

The lifetime of a process can be divided into a set of states*、*each with certain characteristics that describe the process. Chapter 6 will describe all process states, but it is essential to understand the following states now:

1. The process is currently executing in user mode.

2. The process is currently executing in kernel mode.

3. The process is not executing, but it is ready to run as soon as the scheduler chooses it. Many processes may be in this state, and the scheduling algorithm determines which one will execute next.

4. The process is sleeping. A process puts itself to sleep when it can no longer continue executing, such as when it is waiting for I/O to complete.

Because a processor can execute only one process at a time, at most one process may be in states 1 and 2. The two states correspond to the two modes of execution, user and kernel.

2.2.2.3 State transitions

The process states described above give a static view of a process, but processes move continuously between the states according to well-defined rules. A state transition diagram is a directed graph whose nodes represent the states a process can enter and whose edges represent the events that cause a process to move from one state to another. State transitions are legal between two states if there exists an edge from the first state to the second. Several transitions may emanate from a state, but a process will follow one and only one transition depending on the system event that occurs. Figure 2.6 shows the state transition diagram fbr the process states defined above.

Several processes can execute simultaneously in a time-shared manner, as stated earlier, and they may all run simultaneously in kernel mode. If they were allowed to run in kernel mode without constraint, they could corrupt global kernel data structures. By prohibiting arbitrary context switches and controlling the occurrence of interrupts, the kernel protects its consistency.

The kernel allows a context switch only when a process moves from the state “kernel running” to the state “asleep in memory.* Processes running in kernel mode cannot be preempted by other processes; therefore the kernel is sometimes said to be *non-preemptive, although the system does preempt processes that are in user mode. The kernel maintains consistency of its data structures because it is non-preemptive, thereby solving the mutual exclusion problem — making sure that critical sections of code are executed by at most one process at a time.

For instance, ccmsider the sample code in Figure 2.7 to put a data structure, whose address is in the pointer bpl*、onto a doubly linked list after the structure whose address is in *bp. If the system allowed a context switch while the kernel executed the code fragment, the following situation could occur. Suppose the

kernel executes the code until the comment and then does a context switch. The doubly linked list is in an inconsistent state: the structure bpl is half on and half off the linked list. If a process were to follow the forward pointers, it would find bpl on the linked list, but if it were to follow the back pointers, it would not find bpl (Figure 2.8). If other processes were to manipulate the pointers on the linked list before the original process ran again, the structure of the doubly linked list could be permanently destroyed. The UNIX system prevents such situations by disallowing context switches when a process executes in kernel mode. If a process goes to sleep, thereby permitting a context switch, kernel algorithms are encoded to make sure that system data structures are in a safe, consistent state.

​ A related problem that can cause inconsistency in kernel data is the handling of interrupts, which can change kernel state information. For example, if the kernel was executing the code in Figure 2.7 and received an interrupt when it reached the

comment, the interrupt handler could corrupt the links if it manipulates the pointers, as illustrated earlier. To solve this problem, the system could prevent all interrupts while executing in kernel mode, but that would delay servicing of the interrupt, possibly hurting system throughput. Instead, the kernel raises the processor execution level to prevent interrupts when entering critical regions of code. A section of code is critical if execution of arbitrary interrupt handlers could result in consistency problems. For example, if a disk interrupt handler manipulates the buffer queues in the figure, the section of code where the kernel manipulates the buffer queues is a critical region of code with respect to the disk interrupt handler. Critical regions are small and infrequent so that system throughput is largely unaffected by their existence. Other operating systems solve this problem by preventing all interrupts when executing in system states or by using elaborate locking schemes to ensure consistency. Chapter 12 will return to this issue for multiprocessor systems, where the solution outlined here is insufficient.

​ To review, the kernel protects its consistency by allowing a context switch only when a process puts itself to sleep and by preventing one process from changing the state of another process. It also raises the processor execution level around critical regions of code to prevent interrupts that could otherwise cause inconsistencies. The process scheduler periodically preempts processes executing in user mode so that processes cannot monopolize use of the CPU.

2.2.2.4 Sleep and wakeup

A process executing in kernel mode has great autonomy in deciding what it is going to do in reaction to system events. Processes can communicate with each other and “suggest” various alternatives, but they make the final decision by themselves. As will be seen, there is a set of rules that processes obey when confronted with various circumstances, but each process ultimately follows these rules under its own initiative. For instance, when a process must temporarily suspend its execution (“go to sleep”), it does so of its own free will. Consequently, an interrupt handler cannot go to sleep, because if it could, the interrupted process would be put to sleep by default.

Processes go to sleep because they are awaiting the occurrence of some event, such as waiting for I/O completion from a peripheral device, waiting for a process to exit, waiting for system resources to become available, and so on. Processes are said to sleep on an event, meaning that they are in the sleep state until the event occurs, at which time they wake up and enter the state “ready to run.” Many processes can simultaneously sleep on an event; when an event occurs, all processes slewing on the event wake up because the event condition is no longer true. When a process wakes up, it follows the state transition from the “sleep” state to the “ready-to-run” state, where it is eligible for later scheduling; it does not execute immediately. Sleeping processes do not consume CPU resources: The kernel does not constantly check to see that a process is still sleeping but waits for the event to occur and awakens the process then.

For example, a process executing in kernel mode must sometimes lock a data structure in case it goes to sleep at a later stage; processes attempting to manipulate the locked structure must check the lock and sleep if another process owns the lock. The kernel implements such locks in the following manner:

1
2
3

while (condition is true)
	sleep (event: the condition becomes false);
set condition true;

It unlocks the lock and awakens all processes asleep on the lock in the following manner:

1
2

set condition false;
wakeup (event: the condition is false);

Figure 2.9 depicts a scenario where three processes, A, B, and C, contend for a locked buffer. The sleep condition is that the buffer is locked. The processes execute one at a time, find the buffer locked, and sleep on the event that the buffer becomes unlocked. Eventually, the buffer is unlocked, and all processes wake up and enter the state “ready to run.” The kernel eventually chooses one process, say B, to execute. Process B executes the “while” loop, finds that the buffer is unlocked, sets the buffer lock, and proceeds. If process B later goes to sleep again before unlocking the buffer (waiting for completion of an I/O operation, for example), the kernel can schedule other processes to run. If it chooses process A, process A executes the “while” loop, finds that the buffer is locked, and goes to sleep again; process C may do the same thing. Eventually, process B awakens and unlocks the buffer, allowing either process A or C to gain access to the buffer. Thus, the “while-sleep” loop insures that at most one process can gain access to a resource.

Chapter 6 will present the algorithms for sleep and wakeup in greater detail. In the meantime, they should be considered “atomic”: A process enters the sleep state instantaneously and stays there until it wakes up. After it goes to sleep, the kernel schedules another process to run and switches context to it.

2.3 KERNEL DATA STRUCTURES

Most kernel data structures occupy fixed-size tables rather than dynamically allocated space. The advantage of this approach is that the kernel code is simple, but it limits the number of entries for a data structure to the number that was originally configured when generating the system: If, during operation of the system, the kernel should run out of entries for a data structure, it cannot allocate space for new entries dynamically but must report an error to the requesting user. If, on the other hand, the kernel is configured so that it it is unlikely to run out of table space, the extra table space may be wasted because it cannot be- used for other purposes. Nevertheless, the simplicity of the kernel algorithms has generally been considered more important than the need to squeeze out every last byte of main memory. Algorithms typically use simple loops to find free table entries, a method that is easier to understand and sometimes more efficient than more complicated allocation schemes.

2.4 SYSTEM ADMINISTRATION

Administrative processes are loosely classified as those processes that do various functions for the general welfare of the user community. Such functions include disk formatting, creation of new file systems, repair of damaged file systems, kernel debugging, and others. Conceptually, there is no difference between administrative

processes and user processes: They use the same set of system calls available to the general community. They are distinguished from general user processes only in the rights and privileges they are allowed. For example, file permission modes may allow administrative processes to manipulate files otherwise off-limits to general users. Internally, the kernel distinguishes a special user called the superuser^ endowing it with special privileges, as will be seen. A user may become a superuser by going through a login-password sequence or by executing special programs. Other uses of superuser privileges will be studied in later chapters. In short, the kernel does not recognize a separate class of administrative processes.

2.5 SUMMARY AND PREVIEW

This chapter has described the architecture of the kernel; its two major components are the file subsystem and the process subsystem. The file subsystem controls the storage and retrieval of data in user files. Files are organized into file systems, which are treated as logical devices; a physical device such as a disk can contain several logical devices (file systems). Each file system has a super block that describes the structure and contents of the file system, and each file in a file system is described by an inode that gives the attributes of the file. System calls that manipulate files do so via inodes.

​ Processes exist in various states and move between them according to well- defined transition rules. In particular, processes executing in kernel mode can suspend their execution and enter the sleep state, but no process can put another process to sleep. The kernel is non-preemptive, meaning that a process executing in kernel mode will continue to execute until it enters the sleep state or until it returns to execute in user mode. The kernel maintains the consistency of its data structures by enforcing the policy of non-preemption and by blocking interrupts when executing critical regions of code.

​ The remainder of this text describes the subsystems shown in Figure 2.1 and their interactions in detail, starting with the file subsystem and continuing with the process subsystem. The next chapter covers the buffer cache and describes buffer allocation algorithms, used in the algorithms presented in Chapters 4, 5, and 7. Chapter 4 examines internal algorithms of the file system, including the manipulation of inodes, the structure of files, and the conversion of path names to inodes. Chapter 5 explains the system calls that use the algorithms in Chapter 4 to access the file system, such as open, close, read, and write. Chapter 6 deals with the basic ideas of the context of a process and its address space, and Chapter 7 covers system calls that deal with process management and use the algorithms in Chapter 6. Chapter 8 examines process scheduling, and Chapter 9 discusses memory management algorithms. Chapter 10 covers device drivers, postponed to this point so that the relationship between the terminal driver and process management can be explained. Chapter 11 presents several forms of interprocess communication. Finally, the last two chapters cover advanced topics, including multiprocessor systems and distributed systems.

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